Ship of Theseus and Personal Identity

The Ship of Theseus will always be the same. This is due to some reasons. Correlation between identity and change in the world of idealistic field of metaphysics might appear easy but there are some complexities. Whenever an object transforms, it always changes in a certain way.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ship of Theseus and Personal Identity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, a child develops to something different implying that it transforms in terms of size and age. For reptiles such as snakes, they shed their skins. Both the child and the snake remain the same in one way or another. Therefore, properties of an object determine its shape. For illustrative purposes, an item A changes with regard to property B. This could only take place when an object A has property B but at later stage B does not have A. Regarding the Ship of Theseus, the ship changed a lot but it remained the same in terms of its properties. It is the same thing with human life. People change from childhood to mid-adulthood and further to old age. An individual remains the same irrespective of whether he or she is at childhood, mid-adulthood or old age. The Ship of Theseus could have changed in size and shape but it still had some characteristics that distinguished it from other ships. What happened to the ship was mere refurbishment. The ship could have changed completely if the owner decided to destroy it and use the materials to construct something different that does not look like a ship. The concept of recreation vs. destruction is applied explaining this case. The ship cannot be any different because it has all parts that the previous ship had. In case the changes are taken seriously, things would be different whenever we view them for the second time. This would mean that any slight change in properties of an object would affect its existence. Therefore, it is true that properties should be expla ined in terms of time. Indeed, they are indexed to time. A property is temporarily indexed meaning that it is subject to change. According to Leibniz, the ship is the same at all times (Browne 182). This is because ship A has properties that would be found in ship B. On the other hand, ship B has properties that could have been found in ship A. In this case, the common property is the mast. Ships A and B have indexes that are temporary. Irrespective of philosophical theories applied, the Ship of Theseus would always remain the same. Endurantist theory holds that an object will always be the same throughout its history. At each moment in history, the object exists with all its properties. Perdurantist theory on the other hand would claim that objects are four-dimensional entities, which comprises of a sequence of temporal parts (Graves 445). An object is likened to a movie.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OF F Learn More If someone recollected all boards that had been discarded and reassembled them by adding the original sail and mast then the person would still have the Ship of Theseus. Even the ship that had been sailing continuously is still the Ship of Theseus. The real meaning of the word ‘same’ depends on the context. For illustration, the original ship will be assigned letter X, the ship that had been sailing continuously would be labeled as Y while the assembled ship will be branded letter Z. In case the original ship was to be demanded by the original owner because of one reason or another, ship Z would be given to him or her. It would be illegal to give the owner ship Y. It is therefore true to argue that ships X, Y and Z are the same. Ship Y belongs to a different owner because the first owner did not take part in producing it. Materials used in making the second ship that is, Y, have the same features as those used in making both X and Z. Part or whole of Z is the same as X. In fact, the materials used to construct Z are the same as those used in manufacturing X. This does not mean that Y is different. For further illustration, materials used in making ship Y might be changed but the crew remains the same. The crew might as well be transferred to work in ships X and Z. The issue of ‘sameness’ is a matter of convention. There are some factors that people consider before declaring something to be the same with another. Two things might be declared the same based on one principle. For the Ship of Theseus, X was the same as Y because materials used in constructing them had the same characteristics. Equally, Y could be said to be the same as Z in terms of properties. Conversely, X and Z are said to be the same because materials from X were used in manufacturing Z. The three ships are also the same because the same crew can operate them. In conclusion, the problem of personal identity is related to change. An elderly person in his or her late 80s was the same person when he or she was in his or her early 20s. Works Cited Browne, Ray. Objects of Special Devotion: Fetishism in Popular Culture. New York, NY: Popular Press, 1982. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ship of Theseus and Personal Identity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Graves, Robert. The Golden Fleece. London: Hutchinson, 1983. Print. This essay on Ship of Theseus and Personal Identity was written and submitted by user MarcusVanSciver to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Artistic Aesthetics of Monet and Degas essays

The Artistic Aesthetics of Monet and Degas essays Although from the same artist group, the Impressionists originated from backgrounds that seemed worlds apart. Claude Monet, known as the "Master Impressionist" varied the themes in his artwork more than any other artist did. Monet's work "Impression Sunrise", of which the term "Impressionist" originates also gives rise to the title "Master Impressionist." Edgar Degas started his career as an artist with nothing in common with Monet but the era in which they lived. From themes to brushstrokes and choices of colours, Monet and Degas started their relationship as Impressionist artists on opposite ends of the earth. However, towards the climax of their lives as artists, Monet aided Degas in adopting Impressionist Aesthetic qualities. Monet chose to depict exquisite landscapes from his own gardens and elsewhere, particularly in France. He uses small, elegant brush strokes and vibrant colour to match the scenes he paints. In the mid-1870's, Monet's influence over Degas lead Degas to lean his colour choices nearer to those of other Impressionists. In addition to this, Degas began employing pastels, which gave his works a more granular affect that more closely resembled those of other Impressionists. For numerous years in his life, after attempting to paint his the first of his famous "Haystacks", and, being unable to seize the right shading or colours due to the rising sun, Monet was intrigued by the affect of weather and light on his outdoor projects. On the other hand, Degas, although also concentrated mainly in France, based his works on people, nudes and ballerinas in particular. Monet never painted a nude. Monet and Degas' earlier works have notably different brush stroke styles. While Monet has tended to lean towards the short, choppy and yet delicate, Degas' strokes blended virtuously unnoticeable. However, these seem to correspond with their earlier themes and objectives. Monet mastered the art of illus...

Revenue Management, Implementation and Preconditions Article

Revenue Management, Implementation and Preconditions - Article Example Studies have cited that the RM has evolved over 30 years ago, in the early 70s Littlewood and Rothstein have explored the revenue management practice in the airlines and hotels. In 1978, during the deregulation in the airline industry, the importance of RM was ascertained as an implementation of it can increase the revenue above 5%. Therefore the scope of RM was restricted to capacity scheduling and distribution. After illustrating the definition and the evolution of Revenue management the chapter will move on to the literature review. The report will address the various tools of revenue management in the traditional and non-traditional industries and the importance of such tools in an efficient management system. In the end, the study will comprise of the critical comparison and reflection with respect to both the industries and a summary of the entire project addressing the recommendation. The report works on the yield management system and its implementation in both the aviation a nd the restaurant industries. Initially, it looks at the preconditions and the implementation process. Then it will take a deeper review of the implementation of YM through models and the impacts of the external factors and SWOT analysis of such system within the two different industries.  After the American Deregulation Act that loosened the price restriction in  the USA, the airline companies had started to plan their own prices. The main objective of Airline industry is to maximize profit by regularizing pricing and availability of its single perishable commodity like seats. RM is immensely profitable for airlines because it can generate high profits. The process of revenue management covers fare setting and seat inventory management. The management involves taking the decision on the number of seats to be reserved for late booking.

Nature of reality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nature of reality - Essay Example Reality is in its natural form undisputable, primal, and eternal. It has existed in one form and is of likely to change (Adamson, 2002). Perceptions and the senses only give one an appearance, which is subject to change depending on the point of view as well as on differences between people or senses. A blind person has no perception for different colors, but his not being able to see does not make a leaf, for instance, greener or less green. This implies that we cannot depend on the senses to learn the nature of reality. That which exist in a single form regardless of the changes in senses, time, physical conditions or appearances are more real than its perceived form. In the case of the airplane, therefore, being less dependent on perception and appearances we would say that the idea is more real than the physical airplane. This is because, the physical airplane is nothing to someone who was born blind. He does not see the plane and any explanation would yield nothing. However, the idea behind the airplane is easily understood. In the same line, if all the physical airplane were destroyed, anybody who knew of the idea, even without having seen an airplane will not have lost anything. The idea will still exist because it is more

The Relationship Between Exchange Rates Essay Example for Free

The Relationship Between Exchange Rates Essay The relationship between exchange rates, interest rates †¢ In this lecture we will learn how exchange rates accommodate equilibrium in ï ¬ nancial markets. For this purpose we examine the relationship between interest rates and exchange rates. Interest rates are the return to holding interest-bearing ï ¬ nancial assets. In the previous lecture we have pointed out that as being a ï ¬ nancial asset exchange rates tend to adjust more quickly to new information that goods prices. Like exchange rates, interest rates are also the prices of ï ¬ nancial assets and hence adjust quickly to new information. †¢ The proï ¬ t-seeking arbitrage activity will bring about an interest parity relationship between interest rates of two countries and exchange rate between these countries. †¢ A U.S. investor deciding between investing say in New York and in Tokyo must consider several things: – the interest rate in the U.S., i$ , (interest rate in aU.S ¿ dollar denominated bond, or rate of return in a U.S. dollar denominated US stock etc), interest rate in Japan (iY ; – the spot exchange rate, S; and – the future exchange rate for maturity date, forward rate, F . †¢ If the investor did not lock in a future exchange rate now, the unknown future spot exchange rate would make the investment risky. The investor can eliminate the uncertainty over the future dollar value of the investment by covering the investment with a forward exchange contract. †¢ If the investor covers the investment with a forward contract the arbitrage between two investment opportunities results in a covered interest parity (CIP) condition: (1 + i$ ) = (1 + iY ) 1 F S (1) which may be rewritten as (1 + i$ ) F = (1 + iY ) S (2) †¢ The interest rate parity equation can be approximated for small interest rates by: i$ − iY = F −S S (3) †¢ This later equation says that interest diï ¬â‚¬erential between a US denominated investment instrument and a Yen denominated investment instrument is equal to the forward premium or discount on the Yen. †¢ Example: i$ = 5%, iY = 3%. Suppose S = 0.0068 dollars per Yen. What should be the 90-day forward rate? 0.05 − 0.03 = F − 0.0068 0.0068 F = 0.0068 + 0.02 âˆâ€" 0.0068 = 0.00694 Thus we expect that a 90-day forward rate of $0.00694 to give a 90-day forward premium equal to the 0.02 interest diï ¬â‚¬erential. †¢ If the forward exchange rates were not consistent with the respective interest rates, then arbitrageurs could proï ¬ t by immediately changing currency in the spot market, investing it and locking in the proï ¬ table forward exchange rate. These actions in the market would increase the spot rate and lower the forward rate, bringing the forward premium into line with the interest diï ¬â‚¬erential. †¢ Suppose the actual 90-day forward rate is not 0.00694 dollars per yen but 0.0071 dollars per yen. Then proï ¬ t-seeking arbitrageurs could buy Yen spot, then invest and sell the Yen forward for dollars, since the forward price of Yen is higher than that implied by the covered interest parity relation. These actions will tend to increase spot rate and lower the forward rate, thereby bringing the forward premium back in line with the interest diï ¬â‚¬erential. 2 †¢ The interest rate parity condition (CIP) can be used to compute eï ¬â‚¬ective return on a foreign investment. Re-write (3) as: i$ = i Y + F −S S (4) This latter equation says that the return on a US dollar denominated asset (US dollar interest rate) is given by the Japanese interest rate plus the forward premium or discount on Yen. If CIP holds then equation (4) will hold as well. †¢ What happens when an investor does not use the forward market? Then we can not expect eï ¬â‚¬ective return on US dollar denominated asset be given by (4) as the investor in question will not be able to get the premium on Yen (or lose the discount). In this case, we say investor has an uncovered investment. The eï ¬â‚¬ective return then will be determined by the Japanese interest rate plus the change in the spot exchange rate between today and say 90 days from now. Letting it be the domestic interest rate on a domestic currency denominated asset, say US Dollar, between date t and t + 1, and similarly iâˆâ€" stands for foreign interest rate, t the eï ¬â‚¬ective return on a domestic currency denominated ï ¬ nancial asset will be given by: â ˆâ€" it = it + ∆St+1 (5) Which in our example will be i$ = iY + ∆S without time subscript. †¢ Suppose in the example we have been considering so far, the US investor did not use the forward market. After 90 days when the investor go to change Yen back to dollars, she ï ¬ nds that the Yen has appreciated against US dollar say by 1 percent. This means that your Yen buys 1 percent more dollars than they did before. This means that eï ¬â‚¬ective return on Yen investment then will be given by iY + ∆S = 0.03 + 0.01 = 0.04. 3 Hence, the return on a foreign investment plus the expected change in the exchange rate (in the value of Yen) is our expected return on a Yen investment. †¢ If the forward exchange rate is equal to expected future spot rate (Mathematically this means that E [St+1 | given all the available information] = Ft ) then the forward premium/discount is also equal to the expected change in the exchange rate. In this case we say that uncovered interest parity, (UIP) holds. †¢ More formally UIP condition says that the expected change in spot exchange rate is equal to interest diï ¬â‚¬erential. E(St+1) − St = i t − iâˆâ€" t St (6) where for E denotes the expectation operator. At this level you don’t need to worry about what this operator means, you can simply think ESt+1 denoting the expected future value of spot rate. †¢ As above analysis indicate forward exchange rates incorporate expectations about the future spot exchange rates. If the forward exchange rate is equal to the expected future spot rate, then the forward premium is also the expected change in the exchange rate. In this case, UIP is said to hold. †¢ Empirical studies indicate that there are small deviations from CIP. These deviations are possible due to presence of transactions cost, diï ¬â‚¬erential taxation across countries on the returns from investing in ï ¬ nancial markets, government control, and political risk involved in investing in diï ¬â‚¬erent countries. However, these deviations are small enough to assume that CIP holds true almost exactly in the real world data. Therefore, we can say that proï ¬ t-seeking arbitrage activities eliminate proï ¬ t opportunities in the exchange rate markets. Hence, CIP condition can be viewed an equilibrium condition that characterizes the relationship between spot exchange rate, forward rate and interest rates of two countries. 4 †¢ The problem arise in showing if the UIP holds or not in the data. Extensive studies have shown that UIP does not hold in the data especially for the industrialized countries. This means that percentage change in expected future spot rate is not equal to interest diï ¬â‚¬erential. Or, forward rate is not equal to expected future spot rate. Mathematically, this implies that there are deviations from UIP condition stated in (6) above. That is, it − iâˆâ€" − t ESt+1 − St =0 St This means that eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential is not equal to zero. There are several explanations given in the literature. – there should be proï ¬ t opportunities in the exchange rate market that are being exploited by the investors. That may be possible if the inside trading type of activities are possible and used extensively. In other words, there are informational asymmetries in the market, some investors have more information than others and they make positive proï ¬ ts. Although, this may explain part of the puzzle especially in the very short run, it is hard to believe that these informational asymmetries persist for a long time, especially in ï ¬ nancial markets where information ï ¬â€šow is very rapid and exchange rates adjust rapidly to new information. – It is possible to think that investors are systematically making mistakes in predicting the future value of spot exchange rate. That is, Ft = ESt+1 for a prolonged period of time. This means that forward rate is a biased predictor of future spot rate. Here biased means that it does not correctly predicts the future value of spot exchange rate on average. In other words, an unbiased predictor means that it predicts on average correctly the future value of a price, say exchange rate, so that over the long run the forward rate is just as likely to overpredict the future spot rate as it is to underpredict. Unbiased predictor does not mean that forward rate is a good predictor. What it 5 means is that forward rate is just as likely to guess too high as it is too low future spot rates. There is some evidence that indicates that investors in foreign exchange rate market make systematic mistakes in predicting the future value of spot exchange rate and hence causing systematic deviations from UIP. It may be possible to think scenarios where investors make mistakes in their forecast of future values of asset prices, but the magnitude of these mistakes shouldn’t be that large to account the large deviations we observe in UIP. That is, it is hard to understand why especially over longer time periods investors make big mistakes in a systematic fashion. Over time at least we should expect these errors to shrink a level where deviations from UIP become smaller. – Another explanation is that there should be a premium to take a risk by not covering the investment. This idea is based on the behavior of investors in taking risk. The eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential between two countries should be dependent on the perceived risk on each asset and the risk aversion of the investors. The risk aversion refers to the tendency of investors to prefer less risk. In terms of investments two investors may agree on the degree of risk associated with two assets, but the more risk-averse investor would require a higher interest rate on the more risky asset to induce her to hold it then the less risky-averse investor would. In ï ¬ nance, by risk we mean the variability of return from any given investment. This is because the more variable the return from an investment is, the less certain we can be about its future value. If investors diï ¬â‚¬er in their risk taking behavior we may observe that deviations from UIP and hence, changes in risk and risk aversion are associated with changes in eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential (that is interest diï ¬â‚¬erential). That is, it − iâˆâ€" − t ESt+1 â ˆ’ St = f (risk,riskaversion) St 6 The left hand side of this equation is the eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential (or deviations from UIP). The right hand side can be viewed as the risk premium. âˆâ€" – Since CIP conditionit − it = Ft −St Stholds almost exactly, subtracting ex-pected change in exchange rate from both sides: âˆâ€" it − it − Ft − St ESt+1 − St ESt+1 − St = − St St St Ft − ESt+1 ESt+1 − St = St St (7) or it − iâˆâ€" − t (8) Thus, we ï ¬ nd that the eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential (or deviations from UIP) is equal to the percentage diï ¬â‚¬erence between forward and expected future spot exchange rate. The right hand side of (7) is usually considered to be a measure of risk premium in the forward exchange rate market. If eï ¬â‚¬ective return diï ¬â‚¬erential is zero, then risk premium will be zero. If it is positive, then there is a positive risk premium on the domestic currency, because the expected future spot price of foreign currency is less than the prevailing forward rate. In other words, traders are oï ¬â‚¬ering to sell foreign currency for domestic currency in the future will receive a premium, in that foreign currency is expected to depreciate (relative to domestic currency) by an amount greater than the current forward rates. Conversely, traders wishing to buy foreign currency for delivery next period will pay a premium to the future sellers to ensure a set future price. The relationship between interest rates and inï ¬â€šation †¢ The real interest rate reï ¬â€šects the nominal interest rate with an adjustment for inï ¬â€šation. In other words, real interest rate is the nominal interest rate adjusted for inï ¬â€šation. †¢ Generally, the nominal interest rate will tend to incorporate inï ¬â€šation expectations. The relationship between interest rates and inï ¬â€šation is given by the Fisher equation: i=r+Ï€ (9) where i is the nominal interest rate, r is the real interest rate and Ï€ is the expected inï ¬â€šation rate. An increase in Ï€ will tend to increase the nominal interest rate. †¢ If the real rate of interest is the same across countries, then the Fisher can be combined with CIP equation: i$ − iY = Ï€U S − Ï€J = F −S S (10) This latter equation says that if real interest rates are the same internationally, then nominal interest rate diï ¬â‚¬erential diï ¬â‚¬er solely by diï ¬â‚¬erences in expected inï ¬â€šation. †¢ Note that relative exchange rate is given by the inï ¬â€šation diï ¬â‚¬erential and assuming that PPP, Fisher equation, and interest rate diï ¬â‚¬erential hold then real interest rates are equalized across countries. The expected exchange rates and the interest rates †¢ The pattern of interest rates over diï ¬â‚¬erent time periods for diï ¬â‚¬erent investment opportunities is known as term structure of interest rates. There are several interest rates. Short run interest rates, long run interest rates, namely 1 month, 3-month, 6-months etc. There are several theories explaining the the structure of interest rates on diï ¬â‚¬erent investment opportunities over time. – Expectations: the long term interest rates tend to equal to the average of short-term rates expected over the holding period. The expected return that will be generated from holding a 10 year bond should be on average be the the sum of holding a series of short term bonds, say 30-day bond rates. – Liquidity premium: Long term investment instruments must incorporate a risk premium since investors prefer short term investments. As the term of 8 holding an instrument rises, the interest rate on that instrument should rise as well. – Preferred Habitat: There exists separate markets for short and long term assets, with interest rates determined by conditions in each market. †¢ Under conditions of freely ï ¬â€šowing capital across countries, the term structures in diï ¬â‚¬erent currencies infer expected exchange rate changes, even if forward exchange markets for these currencies do not exist. †¢ If the term structure lines for two currencies are: – parallel, then exchange rate changes are expected to be constant; – diverging, then the high interest rate currency is expected to depreciate at an increasing rate over time; – converging, then the high-interest rate currency is expected to depreciate at a declining rate relative to the low-interest rate currency.

The Importance of Educating Jail and Prison Inmates Essay -- importanc

Summary This paper explores the benefits provided by educational programs in jails and prisons. Included are the reasons inmates need education in order to successfully reenter society once they are released and use the knowledge and skills they have learned to obtain a job in order to support themselves and their families. Also examined in the paper are the financial benefits of incorporating educational programs instead of cutting them, as well as the effect these programs play on the recidivism rate. Lastly is a focus on understanding the importance of education and job training, even though the recipients are criminals. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ A controversial issue in the criminal justice field is whether or not educational programs should be offered to inmates in jail while they are incarcerated. While some might argue that taxpayers should not be forced to fund these types of programs, others agree that it is extremely beneficial to not only the inmates but also the taxpayers. Not only are the inmates the people in society who need education the most, but studies have shown a significant decrease in the recidivism rate of inmates who participated in educational programs while incarcerated. Jails and prisons should increase educational programs to inmates because inmates need education more than ever, it is more financially efficient to provide educational programs and it significantly reduces the recidivism rate. According to experts and inmates, education is a key to successful reentry into society that most inmates are lacking. Over the past twenty years, the need for education within jails and prisons has risen to an all-time high... ...grams-could-save-money Buss, E. G. (2010). Stepping stones to successful reentry. Corrections Today, 72(4), 6-10. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/746486739?accountid=38223 Esperian, J. H. (2010). The effect of prison education programs on recidivism. Journal of Correctional Education, 61(4), 316-334. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/871418247?accountid=38223 Skorton, D., & Altschuler, G. (2013, March 25). College behind bars: How educating prisoners pays off. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/collegeprose/2013/03/25/college-behind-bars-how-educating-prisoners-pays-off/ Steurer, S. J., Linton, J., Nally, J., & Lockwood, S. (2010). The top-nine reasons to increase correctional education programs. Corrections Today, 72(4), 40-43. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/746496632?accountid=38223

Racial Formation Summary Essay

Racial Formations by Michael Omi and Howard Winant, in my eyes, successfully explained how we as a society view race and gives us a sense of how it is observed within social contexts. Omi and Winant used media, ideas, and everyday examples to portray their views about race. Omi and Winant’s article began with the Susie Guillory Phipps’s case about how she had (Omi and Winant 2014) â€Å"unsuccessfully sued the Louisiana Bureau of Vital Records† (p.13) because she wanted to change her racial distinction from black to white on her birth certificate. Phipps argument was that racial classifications were unconstitutional. However, the court had upheld the belief that classifying individuals based on race was indeed constitutional. The Phipps case demonstrated for many centuries, that the United States had always tried to define race and how it is to fit within our social context. Omi and Winant then goes on to say this struggle to define race is not only seen in the U nited States, but is seen in other locations around the world, such as Europe. With exploration of the new world, many Europeans had believed that anyone who was not white had to have lesser freedom, if any at all, because these non-white were seen as inferior and less fit for society. Even to this every day, many individuals try to discover the â€Å"scientific meaning† of race. These individuals want to argue that race in not (Omi and Winant 2014) â€Å"social, political, or economic determination† (p. 15) but instead race can be found within an individual’s underlying characteristics which can be identified through skin color or physical attributes. Omi and Winant further showed how race can be seen as a social concept as well. For example, they explained how many people in contemporary British politics use the term black to mean any nonwhites, which surprisingly has not lead to any retaliation by any people. As a matter of fact, some Asian and Afro-Caribbean youth are using the term for self identity. Omi and Winant explains this phenomenon as â€Å"racial formations† which refers to the (Omi and Winant 2014) â€Å"process of by which social, economic, and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories, and by which they are shaped by racial meanings† (p.15). Omi and Winant also goes on to explain within everyday life, individuals tend to create racial identities for others. These preconceived thoughts are like expectations we give  ourselves about other races. These preconceived thoughts did not just occur over night, they are a result of the historical events that has occurred over time and still shape the way we think about other races to this very day. Constructing Race, Cheating, White Privilege Constructing Race, Creating White Privilege by Pem Davidson Buck illustrated from the beginning of European colonization, there was a sense of how white individuals granted themselves privileges that no other race could have. To keep these racial privileges separate, laws such as the one in 1691punished European women who married African Americans or Native American men. The white individuals were so driven to separate themselves from other races, that European men who had children with an African or Native American, or any slave for that matter, were not responsible for the children. This meant that African American or the Natives did not become wealthy and was done so that the white people did not feel threatened by other race’s power. Buck then goes on to say that (2014) â€Å"Whites had an equal interest in the maintenance of whiteness and white privilege, and that it was the elite† (pg.35). This meant that white supremacy was taught to others and thus engraved in their minds for years after. All this was created so that whites would have power over other races. Additionally, whites reserved the right to whip African Americans; however, it was illegal to whip white people. On top of this, African Americans were denied the right to having a family just because husbands could have authority for their wives and not their owners. Buck then goes into talks about Psychological Wage. Buck describes psychological wage as having a feeling of superiority for the poor whites because their whiteness made up for the terrible economic situation they were in. This sense of superiority further helped the rich whites because the poor had supported this separate racial system and thus the rich had control of labor and the economy.